70+ Academic Honors Examples for Your College Application

70+ Academic Honors Examples for Your College Application SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips College applications are all about showing off to the admissions committee, and what better way to do so than to lead with your most impressive academic awards.What are the best academic honors and awards to put on a college application? In this guide, we give you 70+ academic honors examples to give you an idea of what types of achievements colleges like to see most on applications.In addition, we explain what counts as an academic honor or award, go over different impressive academic honors and awards examples you can get, and give you useful tips for effectively talking about awards on your application. What Is an Academic Honor or Award? First things first, what counts as an academic honor or award? Generally speaking, an academic honor or award is any major achievement you’ve made and been recognized for in some way.The form of recognition can range from an actual object, such as a trophy or plaque, to prize money, a title, or verbal recognition. Typically, an academic honor will fall into one of the following categories: Distinction, honor, or honorable mentionfor which you won’t usually receive a physical object or award- just the title A diploma or certificate indicating the completion of a program or recognizing an accomplishment in a program or other activity Prize or award won from a contest, competition, or tournament Scholarship given in recognition of an outstanding (academic) accomplishment Membership in a highly selective and competitive group or society If you’ve won any awards for specific activities such as a sport you play or a club you’re part of, it’s better to list these in the extracurricular activities section of your application instead of in a separate awards section. So what are some honors and awards to put on a college application? Up next, we'll take a look at more than 70 academic honors examples. Academic Honors and Awards Examples Here, we give you a list of 70+ academic honors and awards examples you could include on your own college application, from prizes won in national and international contests to school-based distinctions and awards. All the academic honors examples below are grouped by category and listed alphabetically. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of all academic honors and awards you could possibly have, so if you have an achievement that doesn’t exactly match one of the examples below, don’t worry- you can still put it on your college application! Advanced Placement (AP) Awards AP International Diploma (APID) AP Scholar AP Scholar with Distinction AP Scholar with Honor DoDEA AP Scholar International AP Scholar National AP Scholar State AP Scholar IB Awards IB Diploma IB Middle Years Programme (MYP) Certificate National Awards Governor’s Volunteer Award National Student Volunteer Award President’s Award for Educational Achievement President’s Award for Educational Excellence President’s National Service Award PSAT Awards National Hispanic Scholar National Merit Commended Student National Merit Finalist National Merit Scholar National Merit Semifinalist School-based National Merit Scholarship winner School-Based Awards Foreign language award High class rank (e.g., top 10%) Honor roll/GPA award National Honor Society membership Perfect Attendance Award School-specific award School subject-specific award Student of the Month/Term/Year Subject-specific Honor Society membership (e.g., Science Honor Society) Competitions and Contests Award for high placement (1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th) or participation in any major (academic) contest, such as the following: AAN Neuroscience Research Prize Academic Decathlon Academic Triathlon American Regions Mathematics League (ARML) B.E.S.T. Robotics Design contest Conrad Spirit of Innovation Challenge Davidson Fellows Scholarship Doodle 4 Google Google Science Fair Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) International BioGENEius Challenge International Chemistry Olympiad International Mathematical Olympiad International Photography Awards (IPA) Kids Philosophy Slam LifeSmarts Microsoft Imagine Cup MIT INSPIRE MIT THINK Scholars Program Model UN National Academic League National Academic Quiz Tournament National Economics Challenge by CEE National Geographic Bee National Geographic Student Photo Contest National High School Mock Trial Championship National Science Bowl National Science Olympiad PhysicsBowl Quiz Bowl Regeneron Science Talent Search (STS) Regional/National Junior Science and Humanities Symposium Scholastic Art Writing Awards Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision Awards University Interscholastic League (UIL) Miscellaneous Awards Boy Scouts/Eagle Scouts awards Employee of the Month Girl Scouts awards Merit scholarships for college Musical performance award National Novel Writing Month (NaNoWriMo) winner National Poetry Writing Month (NaPoWriMo) winner Publications (such as short stories, art pieces, essays, etc.) Volunteer award Work award or promotion The Best Honors and Awards to Put on a College Application Of the dozens of academic honors examples above, which ones will look the most impressive on a college application?Here, we explain the top four qualities a truly impressive academic honor will have. Note that an honor doesn’t need to have allthese qualities, though if it does, then it is definitely an excellent one to put on your application! #1: It’s Highly Selective One quality you want to highlight on your application is the selectivity of the award or honor you’ve won.In other words, the academic award will be one that a lot of students try to win, making it difficult to achieve. For example, because national and international contests and competitions draw so many student competitors, winning an award like these would certainly impress the admissions committee. The more selective an academic honor or award is, the more impressive it’ll look on your college application. Academic Honors Examples of Highly Selective Awards National Merit Scholar Google Science Fair winner National Student Volunteer Award #2: It’s Unique Admissions committees see a lot of honor roll and National Society honors on college applications (not that these are bad- they’re just fairly common). So if you've won a particularly unique or rare award, definitely include it on your application, as this willhelp you stand out from the crowd. A unique award can be highly selective; it can also be one that is less well known or that highlights something creative, surprising, or impressive about you. For instance, maybe you won the Most Innovative Employee award at your part-time job after you pitched the idea to create and manage a social media page for the company. Academic Honors Examples of Unique Awards Specific school-based awards (e.g., Most Confident Speaker in Chinese Class) Local or community-based awards #3: It’s Relevant to Your Academic Interests and Strengths Another academic award or honor that'sgreat to include on your college application is one that’s relevant to your academic interests and strengths.These are typically subject- or field-specific awards, such as English or writing awards, math awards, etc. For example, if you’re planning to major in engineering, you'd want to detail any awards you might have won in science, math, or engineering contests. Relevant awards indicate to the admissions committee not only that you’re truly committed to the field you want to study, but also that you’re one of the most promising students in your field. Academic Honors Examples of Relevant Awards AP award Writing award or publication (if you’re an English or creative writing major, for example) STEM award (if you’re a STEM major) Model UN (if you’re a political science or IR major, for example) #4: It Highlights Your Leadership Potential An impressive academic honor or award will also emphasize your leadership potential.These are typicallyawards that involve group or collaborative work.So if you ever led others to success- as a captain or president, for instance- this kind of honor would look great to potential colleges. Just make sure that you explain on your application what kind of role you had and how your leadership specifically led your team to success. Academic Honors Examples of Leadership/Group Awards Volunteer awards Girl Scouts or Eagle Scouts awards How to Talk About Honors on Your College Application: 4 Tips Since you likely won’t have a lot of room to write about academic honors and awards on your application, it's important thatyou present your academic achievements in an effective, impressive way.Here are some tips on how to talk about the awards you've won. Tip 1: Open With Your Most Impressive Awards Admissions officers don’t usually spend a lot of time with each application they get, so you want to make sure that you’re catching their eyes right away by starting with your most impressive honors and awards.These will generally be awards that are highly competitive and required a lot of work and commitment on your end. Tip 2: Focus on Your Spike A "spike" is a particular academic passion you have.For example, if you’re a science buff who plans to major in chemistry, you'd want to emphasize your spike on your application by focusing primarily on your chemistry- and science-related activities and awards. Having a spike will ultimately help you stand out from other applicants.To learn more about how you can develop a spike, check out our guide on how to get into Harvard and the Ivy League. Spikes: good for hedgehogs and college applications. Tip 3: Describe Awards That Are Vague or Unclear Not all academic awards and honors are well known or obvious, especially if they’re unique to your school or area. Therefore, make sure that you’re using the space you have in the awards section of your application to describe any academic honors that the admissions committee is probably unfamiliar with. The last thing you want an award to do is confuse admissions officers, so be clear about what it is, how you won it, and what makes it impressive. Tip 4: Explain the Competitiveness of the Award For each academic award or honor you’ve won, you want to clarify its level of competitiveness by explaining the scope of the competition.For example, was the science tournament you won a national one? A local one? A school-based one? Note that if the award has the word "national" or "international" in it, you shouldn’t have to add much explanation to its description since it'll be obvious that the award is fairly selective. The overall point here is to show off! Recap: Honors and Awards to Put on a College Application As you can see, there's a huge variety in the types of academic honors and awards examples you can put on your college application. The 70+ academic honors examples listed above are just some of the possible honors you could include. In general, the best academic honors to include on your application will have some or all of the following qualities: They’re highly selective/competitive They’re unique They highlight your academic interests and strengths (your "spike," that is) They emphasize your leadership skills/potential You won’t have a ton of space on your application to explain the academic awards you’ve won, so it’s important to use the room you have wisely. To reiterate, here are our four best tips for how to talk about your academic awards and honors on your application: Open with your most impressive awards and honors Focus on your spike- i.e.,your biggest academic passion and commitment Describe any vague, unclear, or lesser-known awards/honors you've received Explain the competitiveness of the award Now get out there and win some awards! What’s Next? Lots of colleges use the Common App. If you're going to be using this platform to apply to college, make sure you know what to expect with the Common App honors section. Planning to take AP tests in the spring? If you're hoping to snag a distinguished AP award, read our guide to get tips on how you can do this. Honors can prove that you're a serious and ambitious college applicant.Check out our expert guide to learn what high school honors is and how you can achieve honors status at your own high school. Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in.

Education Of Gifted Essays - Intelligence, Anthropology, Free Essays

Education Of Gifted Essays - Intelligence, Anthropology, Free Essays Education Of Gifted Running head: GIFTED EDUCATION/CIVIL RIGHTS Education of Gifted Students A Civil Rights Issue? Article Critique Education of Gifted Students A Civil Rights Issue? This paper seeks to answer the question: Is the differential representation of the sexes and of racial and ethnic groups in educational programs for gifted students a civil rights problem? The author does a more than adequate job of presenting the arguments on both sides of the issue and drawing logical inferences. The article seeks to identify the actual dilemma and proposes possible approaches for resolution. Much of the school system today has been shaped by the civil rights laws of the past. The writer notes that the link these rights have to education is the pledge of an equal opportunity for all children to learn and be educated in this country. Schools must accomplish this without regard to race, creed or gender. The author notes that there have been references to the gifted programs being just another subtle form of segregation by the white upper-middle-class. These concerns arise from the fact that the representation of the sexes and of ethnic groups within the gifted classes reflects just such a phenomenon. The unjustified beliefs of genetic inferiority of some races have long since been denounced. These unfounded beliefs have been replaced by research which indicates that the genetic component of intelligence is augmented by the nurturing environment (or lack thereof) of a child. The paper sites twin studies, which give creedence to the genetic component of intelligence, and notes these differences apply within the different ethnic and racial groups. The author attributes an almost equal role to the environment of the child referring to nurturing as the crystallization of native abilities. Noting the differences between the sexes in math and verbal skills, the author seeks to validate this conception. The author sees the cultural values of society as an unavoidable encroachment upon the genders resulting in these differences. I beg to differ, as molecular and developmental studies have shown that there are structural and biological differences in the brains of males and females (Zhang, 1995; Palego, 2000). As a molecular biologist I would be more inclined to attribute differences to the biochemical aspects of development. The writer next addresses the inequities of intelligence tests and accurately identifies them as mere predictors of future academic performance. We are unable to measure native ability with these instruments but these devices do allow for a comparison of the developmental level of a child in the areas of core knowledge, reasoning and conceptual association. It is through these measures that predictions of future performance are made. The author now brings Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences into the debate. He uses the theory to propose expanding the definition of giftedness. Although I do agree in principle with Gardner's theory, the already limited

Multivariate Techniques Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Multivariate Techniques - Research Paper Example In view of the possible incoherence due to the management restructuring at Company W, retraining of Company W’s top management in key departments such as sales, marketing, and production is vital. In addition, the top management at WidgeCorp needs statistically verifiable conclusions on issues and recommendations resulting from broad management restructuring agenda. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the use of factor analysis as a statistical data analysis technique, highlight some of its real life applications, and demonstrate its applicability to company W. Keywords: Exploratory factor analysis (EFA), Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) Factor Analysis Introduction Acquisition is a corporate strategy in wide use by organizations that seek to increase their market presence, lower operation costs, or retain profitability in unfavorable economic conditions. One of the major challenges facing mergers and acquisitions, which accounts for many failures associated with the pro cess, is lack of coherence and incompatibility in the management teams of the corporate entities involved. A disconcerting 50% of merger and acquisition deals fail due to a number of factors, one of which is the inability to reconcile the management cultures of the companies involved (Monahan, 2000). Therefore, a successful acquisition does not end with the formalization of the acquisition process, but with retraining and restructuring to ensure retention of harmony in the management structures of the two companies. The integration process is delicate, and needs careful deliberation and planning by the top management so that it does not defeat the purpose of the acquisition. This summary seeks to explain the effects of implementation of factor analysis in Company W. Admittedly, subjective judgment and experience present glaring limitations as decision-making techniques (Monahan, 2000). Despite the proven effectiveness of multivariate statistical analysis techniques such as factor an alysis techniques, WidgeCorp should not undermine the possible benefits that traditional methods used at Company W might offer the new corporate conglomerate. The management should aim to bring the best practices from either side of the management landscape to benefit from the synergies appropriately (Monahan, 2000). The transition to a common management approach should be as smoothly as possible, and should aim to win the cooperation of the employees the changes will affect the most. What is Factor Analysis? Factor analysis is a statistical analysis technique that explains the variation and correlation of variables with the use of uncorrelated, unobserved variables known as factors (DeCoster, 1998). Statistical researchers hail Charles Spearman, a psychologist, as the pioneer in the practical application of factor analysis. Factor analysis is highly applicable to social sciences and in business in areas such as marketing, production, and sales (DeCoster, 1998). The technique is hig hly effective in areas that involve the processing of very large quantities of data. The overriding premise of factor analysis is that factors that have high correlation share the same driving factors and vice versa. Factor analysis assumes two forms: exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and confirmatory factor analy

Water conservation strategies according to green seal requirements Case Study

Water conservation strategies according to green seal requirements - Case Study Example This paper deals with the concept of water recycling and waste water management according to the principles enshrined in Green Seal recommended practices. Water recycling processes can adopt many strategies that strives to conserve water as well as reuse them after separating harmful pollutants and organic matter from it. The strategies also involve practices that encourage the effective use of water and reduction of waste water. Waste water management is not a discipline that merely consists of scientific jargon. It is attainable and sustainable provided one takes the pains to implement it aptly.With the increasing destruction of environmental resources, the need for conservation has significantly increased in the modern world. This is specifically so in the case of resources such as water. Statistics available indicate that sources of potable water will not remain as such if the level of exploitation is to continue at the current rate in the world. In addition to the pressures of p opulation increase and pollution, industrial pressures on potable water are also decreasing the availability of fresh water and there is an urgent need to control water wastage. It is in this context that the need to control water wastage through water recycling gains importance. Wastewater management is an emerging field of science that helps to tackle issues related to water pollution and contamination in the industrial world.The need for waste water management has many ramifications, which is both social as well as economical. As far as the society is concerned waste water management helps to recycle the much needed elixir of life back into the water sources as potable water. Otherwise, water that is recycled can be used to sustain green cover over an area thereby providing for the optimum use of this precious natural resource. On the economic front it may be said that conserving water amounts to saving money in many ways and the initial costs that may be involved can soon be rec ouped in terms of both tangible and intangible benefits for the company. World wide statistics indicate that water, which is a fundamental need for the existence of life on earth, is limited in terms of its availability. Humans have access to less than 0.08% of all the water that is available in earth. To add to the woes it is believed the need for water will increase by about 40% in the next two decades. This perhaps indicates to the immense responsibility that humans have towards conserving water. In the year 1999, the United Nations Environment Programme identified water shortage as one of the two most worrying problems for the millennium. The fact that the other problem, global warming, is also related to water shortage adds gravity to the situation. It is believed that one person in five across the world has no access to safe drinking water. Similarly, one in two lacks safe sanitation [United Nations Industrial Development Organization. 1996] In terms of social ramifications, a reliable supply of water is the basic need for any form of development. The availability and quality of water is essential factor in the nation's ability to protect public health, preserve ecological integrity, ensure sufficient agricultural production, and meet commercial needs. Therefore issues affecting the nation's atmospheric water, surface water and groundwater need to be addressed with priority. Certain facts that point towards the gravity of a water crisis are: About 1.1 billion people, or 18 percent of the world's population, lack access to safe drinking water. In addition, 2.5 billion are without proper sanitation. Even though the freshwater supplies are sufficient for the world's population, water scarcity exists due to poor management and distribution of water resources. Unsafe drinking water is the cause of death of more than five million people each year.

Network operating systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Network operating systems - Essay Example Novell was licensing Novell Directory Services to all comers, the idea being to seed the market and make NDS a de facto standard that will increase demand for Novell's directory-enabled applications. While these licensing deals didn't expected to produce much revenue at this point, that might change down the road if third parties start including NDS in products instead of building their own directories. As Robert Harbison says, "That's where Microsoft is really great. Microsoft shipped NT 4.0 with a sampler CD full of third-party applications from its ISVs. Novell has to do a lot more to help promote NDS applications." Distinguishing feature of Novell's approach to network operating systems is understanding of importance of middleware technologies, for example NDS' unparalleled cross-platform support is particularly appealing to Tivoli. "Microsoft has traditionally misunderstood the importance of certain middleware technologies and how important it is for them to be cross-platform in nature," says Tom Bishop. "Active Directory is fine for pure NT shops, but Novell's NDS strategy has some real appeal in the more heterogeneous environments that we target." It is mentioned by Breidenbach that NDS is now available on Hewlett-Packard's HP-UX, IBM's AIX, Caldera's Linux and The Santa Cruz Operation's Unix, Sun Solaris and IBM's S/390. NT is already supported by NDS, but only in environments with at least one NetWare server. A version of NDS that runs directly on NT without NetWare was due out in summer of 1999; it would enable users to build pure NT networks but still employ NDS. This approach of Novell differs a lot from Microsoft's Active Directory Technology that is available only for Windows platform. As a result, Novell's NDS can be implemented on various operating systems but do not help to promote Novell's operating system Novell Netware, while software products of Microsoft run only in Microsoft Windows environment. Another distinguishing feature of Novell's approach to network operating systems is collaboration with switch vendors. As Breidenbach writes, part of Novell's strategy for boosting NDS' role in enterprise nets is getting switch vendors on board. The company has been scoring big with the likes of Lucent, Nortel Networks and Cisco announcing varying degrees of support for NDS. At the same time Microsoft do not work with switch vendors so close. 2 Given all this good technical stuff, why is Novell close to bankruptcy and Microsoft Networks are taking over the planet I think that the main reason of Novell's difficult financial situation is thoughtless marketing strategy. It was a mistake trying to enter desktop operating systems market. Failure in this attempt had caused loss of trust of many potential customers. Breidenbach writes about this in the article. "Novell was on top and got dethroned," says high-tech marketing guru Geoffrey Moore. "When that happens, the market is extremely reluctant to reenfranchise such a company, even if it has the best product." "And the number of ISVs is meaningless," Moore adds. "The issue is what the power players are doing. Cisco and Microsoft have the strongest positions, so a solution that doesn't have their endorsement isn't likely to get very

Security Metrics Maturity Model for Operational Security

Security Metrics Maturity Model for Operational Security CHAPTER ONE: Introduction In this chapter, the key concepts and definitions by well known security authorities on security metrics is introduced and discussed. Then the issues and motivation that brings about this research topic is explained. Thereafter, the end result which is the objectives is put forth. To achieve these objectives, the goals are briefly outlined. There is also a section that explains the scope of the research and limitations for this work. Finally, the research flow on the chapters is explained. 1.1 Introduction Information Technology (IT) is continuously evolving at faster rate and enterprises are always trying to keep pace with the changes. So does the threats. As the complexity of IT increase, the unprecedented threat environment and security challenges also have increased multi fold over the years. Security Managers and CSOs with the blessings of top management keep investing and on security solutions to protect from ever increasing adversaries. But getting the blessings is not always an easy task for them as management normally does not see the direct benefit. Convincing on security investment is also part of challenges for Security Managers and CSOs. As part of the convincing process, the Security Metrics (SM) plays a vital role in any organization. It helps the management to have a close to comprehensive view of their organizational security posture. SM provides some measurement on how secure the organization is. However, how accurate is the information provided by the SM? Can the management take the SM as a final view of their respective organizational security posture? Can SM ensure the investment made for security is worth? A good SM should be able to answer accurately or provide some qualified response for the questions that management have. SM receiving many attention lately as IT Security is no more an option. With multitude of attacks from adversaries and many regulatory requirements, organizations are spending on security investment to ensure they are protected and stay competitive in markets. The greatest push factors for the metrics awareness are the recent amplified regulatory requirement, greater demand for transparency and accountability. Additionally there are many internal factors that driving organization to justify security investments, security and business objectives alignment and finally to fine-tune effectiveness and efficiency of organizational security programs. Much has been written and researched on SM on various aspects from data collection, analysis to measurement method etc. A considerable number of research efforts have been emerging in best practices, methodologies, framework, tool and techniques are being recommended and adopted to mature the security metrics. However, relatively little has been reported and proven on quality and matured metrics one has to follow and put in practice. Moreover security cannot be measured as a universal concept due to the complexity, uncertainty, non-stationary, limited observability of operational systems, and malice of attackers [VERENDEL V, 2010]. More has to be researched in the area of security metrics. Many interpretations and meanings of Security Metrics have been found on the Internet. Some examples taken from well know publications and researchers are as follows: According to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), â€Å"Metrics are tools designed to facilitate decision-making and improve performance and accountability through collection, analysis and reporting of relevant performance-related data† [NIST-SP, 2001]. Whereas SANS in its â€Å"A Guide to Security Metrics, SANS Security Essentials GSEC Practical Assignment†, Shirley C. Payne says that â€Å"Measurements provide single point-in-time views of specific, discrete factors, while metrics are derived by comparing to a predetermined baseline two or more measurements taken over time. Measurements are generated by counting: metrics are generated from analysis. In other words, measurements are objective raw data and metrics are either objective or subjective human interpretations of those data†. [SHIRLEY C. PAYNE, 2006] She also further describes what would be considered a â€Å"useful† metric: â€Å"Truly useful metrics indicate the degree to which security goals, such as data confidentiality, are being met and they drive actions taken to improve an organization’s overall security program.† Yet another one practical definition by Andrew Jaquith, states that â€Å"Metrics is a term used to denote a measure based on a reference and involves at least two points, the measure and the reference. Security in its most basic meaning is the protection from or absences of danger. Literally, security metrics should tell us about the state or degree of safety relative to a reference point and what to do to avoid danger†. [JAQUITH (1), 2007] [M. SWANSON, 2003] highlights some of the key uses of security metrics in an organization. They are (not limited to):- Enabling organizations to verify compliance level against internal and external institutions. (e.g. laws, regulations, standards, contractual obligations) and internal ones (e.g. organizational policies and procedures Provide visibility and increasing transparency on accountability with regards to specific security controls and facilitating detection. Provide effectiveness and efficiency of security management by providing better visibility on security posture at high and granular level, helping in security strategies and display trends. Helping management to decide better on security investments in terms of allocating resources, product and services. Having a right security metrics is a paramount in gauging a security posture of an organization. Most of the SM concerns coins from the correctness and effectiveness. Correctness denotes assurance that the security-enforcing mechanisms have been rightly implemented (i.e. they do exactly what they intended to do, such as performing some calculation). Effectiveness denotes assurance that the security-enforcing mechanisms of the systems meet the stated security objectives (i.e. they do not do anything other than what is intended for them to do, while satisfying expectation or resiliency).[BARABANOV et al, 2011] Organizations faced with many security metrics options to be used. The security managers and CSOs bombarded with large set of related, unrelated, heterogeneous security metrics by different source or assets within the organization. How will they make these metrics to be more meaningful and eventually reduce risks and support strategic security decisions? Therefore, the decision makers should be furnished a proper security metrics guidelines that encompass the right type of measurement / data to choose, correct way of analyzing and interpreting and any other recommendations. This research, therefore will explore further on the existing security metrics recommendations currently in practice. In order to improve the current security metrics, more research efforts are needed and focused in the area of good estimators, human element reduction, obtaining more systematic and speedy means to obtain meaningful measurements and better understanding of composition of security mechanisms. [LUNDHOLM et al, 2011] Therefore, this research will explore the identification of quality security elements to determine matured security metrics as there are many areas within IT security that contributes to an organizational security posture. This mainly involves providing weight-age for each and every element. Thereafter the elements are then prioritized and finally sum up to provide a final security posture of an organization. Some of the key domains within security are cryptography, operational security, physical security, application security, telecommunication security and many more. The research will identify elements within these domains that play a vital role in an organization to produce a security metrics report for management. These elements are further scrutinized and qualified to be part of the security metrics. The scrutinization and qualification is done through various researches done by previous researchers. The systematic techniques will provide a guided recommendation for near optimal security metrics for an organization. The key questions for this research will be what is acceptable security metrics element or measurement for a domain? How accurately these parameters are obtained? How effective are they? As a whole how matured are the metrics? How these various elements and parameters can be used to provide an accurate and convincing security posture report for an organization in a practical manner? To go further explaining this research, imagine this scenario: A key security personnel of an organization presenting a finding of the company’s security posture. She/he talking about how good the security in place, how good is the security fortress, how impenetrable the security perimeter and so on. To support his claims he throws some PowerPoint slides with security metrics. The management was like awed and feeling comfortable with the presentation and they felt secure doing their business. But then there are few questions from the floor on the accuracy, quality, completeness and maturity of the metrics. How confidence is the security metrics presented? Hence a proper model that supports the claim is needed. The model will substantiate the claims of the security personnel on her/ his findings. Therefore this research will look into the ways of substantiating by proposing a maturity model. The end result of this research will be guiding principles that leads Security Managers to produce a convincing and close to accurate report for C Level management of an organization. This research will look into various studies done on existing measurements and security elements for Security Metrics and produce a method that will portray the maturity of security metrics used in an organization. 1.2 Problem Statement The lack of clear guidance on security measurements that represent a security posture of an organization has been always a problem despite many researches done in the area. Despite many methods and definition in the area of security metrics were introduced, nothing is strikingly clear that enable organization to adopt and implement in their respective organization particularly in operational security. There are many theoretical and more to academia texts available in this area [JAQUITH, 2007, M. SWANSON, 2003, CIS-SECMET, 2012]. Organizations still lack of precise knowledge of practicable and effective security metrics in the operational security settings. 1.3 Motivation There is an obvious need in guiding organization to the right direction in implementing their respective organizational security program. There is paucity exist in the mode of guiding process for organization to implement security program with the right metrics to monitor their operational activities. The main incentive behind proposing a matured security metrics for operational security is a workable solution and guide for matured security metrics for any organization. Organizations need a model to look into the type of metrics used in their security program and a model to chart their metrics improvement program. Hence the solution will be an asset for organizations in implementing reliable and practical security metrics. This paper will answer question like â€Å"Are incidents declining and improving security over time? If yes or no, how reliable are the answers?† Is my metrics are correct and reliable if not how can I improve it? Further, the paper will provide some practic al top down approach in approaching security metrics in an operational environment. Another motivation for this paper is the findings from the [PONEMON, 2010], who claims many researches lack of guidance, impractical in operational environment and purely formal treatment as no empirical support as a whole. In the end, through some findings of this paper, organizations will be able to gauge the return on investment on security investments. They should be able to measure successes and failures of past and current security investments and well informed on future investments. 1.4 Objectives The problem statement and motivations bring the objective for this work. The objectives for this project will be: a. To provide security metric quality taxonomy for operational security b. To devise methods for matured security metrics for operational security To achieve these objectives, the methodology and goals used for this work would be: Conduct a literature review on existing research works and state of the art Identify the key operational areas based industry expert inputs Develop a taxonomy based on the key operational areas Identify the key criteria or parameters that make a good quality metrics Identify on how to categorize or rank the metrics to represent the maturity of a metric Develop a method to guide for a quality security metrics Develop a metric score card to represent maturity level Develop a Security Metrics Maturity Index (SM-Mi) 1.5 Scope of Work For the purpose of this research only a certain area of operational security is identified. Also to be more focused, to give a better view and example, we will choose few important and popular metrics among security practitioners. The research is aim to provide a very practical approach in operational security metrics for an organization, but is not meant to be treated as an exhaustive guide or resource. Metrics prioritization is out of the scope of this research as organizations have various different business objectives and goals. These decide and dictate the type of metrics to be used and emphasized as such metrics will not be discussed [BARABANOV, 2011]. 1.7 Thesis Layout The research consists of 6 chapters; the first chapter will describe some security concepts and motivation for this topic. The second chapter will delve into the related works done in this area. This chapter will identify some key research findings and what is lacking in them and how some of the information will help for this thesis. As for the research methodology and proposed framework, chapter 3 will explain this. Chapter 4 will identify and explain in detail the formulation of proposed metrics and taxonomy for operational security in the form of techniques. Meanwhile Chapter 5 will discuss a case study based on the solution proposed. Chapter 6 will be a brief chapter that summarize the research and will discuss on future direction of this research.

The Trolley Dodgers

In 1890, the Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers professionals’ baseball team joined the National League. Over the following years, the Dodgers would have considerable difficulty competing with the other baseball themes in the New York City area. Those teams, principal among them the New York Yankees, were much better financed and generally stocked with players of higher caliber. In 1958, after nearly seven decades of mostly frustration on and off the baseball field, the Dodgers shocked the sports world by moving to Los Angeles. Walter O’Malley, the flamboyant owner of the Dodgers, saw an opportunity to introduce professional baseball to the rapidly growing population of the West Coast. More important, O’Malley saw an opportunity to make his team more profitable. As an in document to the Dodgers, Los Angeles Country purchased a goat farm located in Chavez Ravine, an area two miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles, and gave the property to O’Malley for the site of his new baseball stadium. Since moving to Los Angeles, the Dodgers have been the envy of the baseball world: â€Å"In everything from profit to stadium maintenance†¦the Dodgers are the prototype of how a franchise should be run. †? During the 1980s and 1990s, the Dodgers reigned as the most profitable franchise in baseball with a pretax profit margin approaching 25 percent in many years. In late 1997, Peter O’Malley, Walter O’Malley’s son and the Dodgers principal owner, sold the franchise for $350 million to media mogul Rupert Murdoch. A spokesman for Murdoch complimented the O’Malley family for the longstanding success of the Dodgers organization. â€Å"The O’Malley’s have set a gold standard for franchise ownership†. ? During an interview before he sold the Dodgers, was seemingly a perfect example of one of those experts he had retained in all functional areas: â€Å"I don’t have to be an expert on taxes, split-fingered fastballs, or labor relations with our ushers. That talent is available. †? Edward Campos, a longtime accountant for the Dodgers, was seemingly a perfect example of one of those experts in the organization. Campos accepted an entry-level position with the Dodgers as a young man. By 1986, after almost two decades with the club, he had worked his way up the employment hierarchy to become the operations payroll chief. After taking charge of the Dodgers’ payroll department, Campos designed and implemented a new payroll system, a system that reportedly only he fully understood. In fact, Campos controlled the system so completely that he personally filled out the weekly payroll cards for each of the four hundred employees of the Dodgers. Campos was known not only for his work ethic but also for his loyalty to the club and its owners: â€Å"The Dodgers trusted him, and when he was on vacation, he even came back and did the payroll. †? Unfortunately, the Dodgers’ trust in Campos was misplaced. Over a period of several years, Campos embezzled several hundred thousand dollars from his employer. According to court records, Campos padded the Dodgers’ payroll by adding fictitious employees to various departments in the organizations. In addition, Campos routinely inflated the number of hours worked by several employees and then split the resulting overpayments fifty-fifty with those individuals. The fraudulent scheme came unraveled when appendicitis struck down Campos, forcing the Dodgers’ controller to temporarily assume his responsibilities. While completing the payroll one week, the controller noticed that several employees, including ushers, security guards, and ticket salespeople, were being paid unusually large amounts. In some cases, employees earning $7 an hour received weekly paychecks approaching $2,000. Following a criminal investigation and the filing of charges against Campos and his cohorts, all the individuals involved in the payroll fraud confessed. A stale court sentenced Campos to eight years in prison and required him to make restitution of approximately $132,000 to the Dodgers. Another of the conspirators also received a prison sentence. The remaining individuals involved in the payroll scheme made restitution and were placed on probation. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. Identify the key audit objectives for a client’s payroll function. Comment on both objectives related to tests of controls and those related to substantive audit procedures. Ans: The key audit objectives for a client’s payroll function are occurrence, completeness, accuracy, pasting and summarization, classification and timing. On the occurrence objective the related test of control could be examining the time cards, personnel files, reviewing organization chart to see if the payroll payments are for exiting work and for existing employee and the substantive test for the occurrence objective is to see if the right amount of payroll is paid to the right employee and were recorded properly. On the completeness objective the test of control could be to see if the existing payroll were recorded and the substantive test is to compare the book and the payroll bank statement and look for the unmatched amount. For the accuracy objective, the test of control is to examine if the right hours and rate are recorded, tax withholding is correct while the substantive test is to test for exact amount by recalculating gross pay and net pay, comparing pay rate with the industry also. For posting and summarization objective, the test of control could be comparing the master files total with general ledgers total and while the substantive test is by footing the payroll journal and tracing postings to the journal ledger and the payroll master file. The test of control for the classification objective is to review charts of accounts while the substantive test is to review the time cards and job ticket. Lastly, for the timing objective, the test of control is to examine procedures and observe if recording is taking place while the substantive test is to compare date on checks. . What internal control weaknesses were evident in the Dodgers’ payroll system? Ans: The internal control weaknesses in the Dodger’s payroll system is that Campos, who is happen to be the operations payroll chief, is the one who designed and also implemented a new payroll system that only him that could fully understand. Also other weaknesses is that there is no independent check a nd performance, there is also no separation of duties, and Dodgers work environment would be a weakness because Campos and others have low work ethic. 3. Identify audit procedures that might have led to the discovery of the fraudulent scheme masterminded by Campos. Ans: Audit procedures that might discover the fraud is by understanding Dodger’s payroll chart because auditors would see if there are no independent check and performance and no separation of duties. Another thing is that to interview employees in the payroll department. Test for nonexistent employee, reconciling the total hours paid in payroll records with that in an independent record of the hours worked and observing employee time in.

Caged Bird by Maya Angelou Essay

Question: Explore the ways in which the poets in the following poems use imagery to vivid effect. Use examples from both the poems. Caged Bird by Maya Angelou Before the Sun by Charles Mungoshi The poem, Caged Bird by Maya Angelou, dramatizes the discrimination between the blacks and the whites. As this issue relates to the life of the poet, she expresses her way of thinking through this poem. The poet speaks about two birds, one which is free, expressing the freedom which the blacks desire, and another a caged bird, articulating their actual standing. The poet puts across her thoughts in order to evoke an emotion of sympathy towards the Afro-Americans, from the readers. To give a more vivid and an effective outcome, the poet has used various imageries to convey an array of feeling. The poet talks about the liberty of the free bird by saying, â€Å"dips his wing in the orange suns rays and dares to claim the sky†1. This sentence gives us the impression of how the free bird opens its wings and flies around in the blue sky, without any obstructions by anyone. This is a desire which the Afro-Americans in the society had, as they were always under restrictions by the whites. In the next stanza, we see that, Maya speaks of a caged bird that can, â€Å"seldom see through his bars of rage his wings are clipped and his feet are tied so he opens his throat to sing†2. This image of the condition of the caged bird gives us the knowledge that it cannot fly or even walk, on top of it, the bars of the cage makes him furious. The Afro-Americans of the world were in the same position, where the limitations were raising their temper, however they could not demand and fight for their justice. There was a terror in the voice of the caged bird as the poet says that it â€Å"sings with a fearful trill†3. Being restrained from many matters of life, a dread of panic had entered the Afro-Americans. They were terrified of each and every move of the whites, although they longed for a day when they will gain freedom. â€Å"caged bird sings of freedom†4, through this sentence, the poet compares the caged bird and the Afro-Americans of the society, as both hopes for free will. A very strong imagery of the horror of the Afro-Americans is being given in the fifth stanza of the poem. Maya uses the words, â€Å"stands on the grave of dreams†5, to show how the hardships and frustrations of living in a segregated Afro-American community has forced the Afro-Americans to think that their wishes and demands have come to an end, as they are dominated by the rules of white people. An image of a grave tells us that the surrounding is dark, lonely and gloomy; therefore we get an impression about the kinds of thoughts which go across in the Afro-American group of people’s minds. They face so much of annoyance and dissatisfaction that, just a nightmare can make even their shadows scream of terror. The last stanza of the poem again repeats the lines in the third stanza, emphasizing on the yearning of freedom by the Afro-Americans, though having a dread in them. Therefore, we saw how Maya Angelou has used various effective imageries in conveying the sentiments and emotions of the Afro-Americans. The poem, Before the Sun by Charles Mungoshi, sensationalizes the emotions of a child who is in his childhood, but on the verge of becoming an adult. The boy is on the threshold of maturity. The poet speaks about a child, who is in his adolescence and who is very close to nature. Therefore, the poet uses vivid imageries of nature to convey the thoughts of the boy. The boy communes with nature and the universe. We read the poem through the boy’s voice. In the first stanza itself, we get the hint that the boy is close to the nature. We can see that, the child is waiting for the sun to come up as he says, â€Å"Intense blue morning promising early heat†6, so that he can have a new start of the day. The figurative meaning of this would be that, he is waiting for his manhood to come. His childhood is the night, which is innocent of the activities going on in the world, and the sun for which he is waiting is his adulthood, which will bring a new day in his life. This day is revealing, which results in a loss of innocence of the night, i.e. the boy’s childhood, as he will gain experience. The second stanza is an image, where we visualize the boy cutting a wood with an axe. This is a very effective image, as we actually have the vision of cutting of a tree and, the chips flying away. This is shown as Mungoshi says in this stanza, â€Å"The bright chips fly from the sharp axe†7. The word, â€Å"arc†, is very effective, as it has both, visual and an audible image, of the short span of time when the axe is whacked on the tree, and the chip of the wood, flies and settles down n the grass, making the shape of an arc in the air. The third stanza has an imagery of a, â€Å"big log†8, of wood being wanted by the boy to cut. A sense of achievement is being shown by Mungoshi, which the boy desires, as he is in his teenage years. The fifth stanza has again a very strong and an effectual imagery of the wood being cut, and dust coming out of the wood. The phrase, â€Å"It sends up a thin spiral of smoke which later straightens and flutes out to the distant sky: a signal- of some sort, or a sacrificial prayer.†9 This is a visual image, where the boy tells the readers, that how, when the wood is being cut, the smoke makes a spiral shape and moves up. The words, ‘flutes out’, tells us that the smoke makes a sound while going up, which is very similar to the sound of a flute. The boy considers moving away towards his adulthood by sacrificing his childhood, as a result he says, that the smoke which is going is, â€Å"a sacrificial prayer†. â€Å"The wood hisses, The sparks fly†10, is an imagery of log of woods burning in the fire, and the sparks makes a kind of sound. This fire can be the image of a sacrificial fire, as he imagines of sacrificing childhood. The last stanza of the poem has an imagery of the process of eating, as the boy says, â€Å"taking big alternate bites: one for the sun, one for me†11. The last line, â€Å"two little skeletons in the sun†, tells us that the two skeletons are two cobs of maize which the boy was eating, although, this image can be the remains of his childhood, which he sacrificed. Therefore, we see how Charles Mungoshi has used vivid and effective visions and sounds to portray the feelings of the boy in moving towards maturity and adulthood. In the end, it is seen that both the poems have one major theme in common, i.e. the desire of freedom. The Afro-Americans symbolized by the caged bird wants the freedom of rights and speech, and on the other hand the adolescent boy wants to enjoy the same lack of restrictions enjoyed by the adults. Both of them are impatiently waiting for their freedom. 1 Caged Bird, by Maya Angelou Stanza 1, l-3 2 Caged Bird, by Maya Angelou Stanza 2, ll-5-6 3 Caged Bird, by Maya Angelou Stanza 3 l-7 4 Caged Bird, by Maya Angelou Stanza 3 l-10 5 Caged Bird, by Maya Angelou Stanza 5 l-14 6 Before the Sun, by Charles Mungoshi Stanza 1 ll-1-2 7 Before the Sun, by Charles Mungoshi Stanza 2 ll- 5-6 8 Before the Sun, by Charles Mungoshi Stanza 3 l-12 9 Before the Sun, by Charles Mungoshi Stanza 5 ll- 20-25 10 Before the Sun, by Charles Mungoshi Stanza 6 ll- 26-27 11 Before the Sun, by Charles Mungoshi Stanza 8 ll- 38-41

Maria Full of Grace Essay Example

Maria Full of Grace Essay Example Maria Full of Grace Paper Maria Full of Grace Paper Muted group theory illustrates how a group can acquire power and use it to it to dominate culture. It specifically refers to the gender roles created by society and can also be used to examine cross-cultural case studies. Its name describes how a group in power can manipulate language and communication practices specific to its culture in order to silence the members not included in the dominant group. Maria Full of Grace is an exposi of the complexities surrounding womens involvement in drug trafficking and becoming a woman in a male dominated society. In the movie there are many examples of communication that are impeded because of womens current role in society. The movie opens with its title character, Maria Alvarez , a 17-year-old Colombian, making out her boyfriend, Juan. Juan is completely involved in the moment and hinting that he wants to further accelerate the situation, and he even doesnt notice her indifference to his affection. He attempts to get her to agree to let them go back to her house, but she wants to climb on top of the roof. She emasculates Juan by teasing him and he gets irritated and walks away. Instead of complying with Juans wish to go back to her house, Maria responded by taking control of the situation (especially notable because of its sexual nature) and said, See how you treat me? Youre a drag. Because she attempts to step outside of the expectation that she will fulfill the needs of her lover, she is punished by him walking off and leaving her on the roof by herself. In the next scene, Maria is being mistreated by her male supervisor. He refuses to let her go to the restroom even though she feels nauseated, and then proceeds to demand she clean the mess off the roses after she vomits on them. It is implied Maria takes this kind of abuse on a regular basis. When she next sees her mother and sister, at the local pharmacy, she informs them she quit her job at the factory. They are alarmed and ask when and why this happened. This is sparked by argument over money. It is cultural practice for a Colombian family to all chip in and help out with money, even if it is not equally contributed to. Marias nephew, Pacho, is sick and needs medicine. Diana and her mother tell her she is selfish and should be able to deal with her employment issues for the benefit of the family. They ask her to go back, but Maria refuses, saying she will find other work. This is an example of a socially constructed expectation that works in opposition of womens rights. Maria is being harassed by her employer; this should be handled immediately by reporting him to a company employee in charge of human resources. Instead, she sees the only way to stop it is to quit. Because her word would most likely not be taken seriously, she takes the blame instead of demanding action. This form of oppression is a form of muting an individual because of her gender. Not only does she give up her job, but she is chastised by her own family for not thinking of them first. It is conventional for Hispanic families to function together, even at the expense of a womans happiness. Maria is working to take care of her nephew who has no father in sight. Actually, there are no males besides Pacho in the household that are ever mentioned; this leaves only Maria to provide income. Later in the movie, Maria tells Juan she is pregnant, but she does not want to get married. He contends he must live with her, because society wont accept a guy living in his girlfriends house. Again, Maria departs from the norm by rejecting the necessity of marriage because of a pregnancy. She even goes further to reject the notion of marriage without love. Maria is comfortable with her independence, even as a single mother-a concept foreign to most women in her position. Muted group theory is also applicable in this film because it deals with cultural issues. Women often jeopardize their freedom and lives by agreeing to serve as drug mules or couriers to smuggle illegal drugs into another country. Maria is in desperate need of a job because she is obligated to care for her mother, sister, and nephew. She meets Franklin, who at first seemed very innocent, and he mentions a way she could make money if she would take the chance. Franklin delivers her to Javier, the head of this particular drug cartel in Bogat. He explains the arrangements, but not without offering a charitable donation so she could get her affairs in order. The direction and quality of her life is no longer in her hands; it is in those of the men in authority positions in her life. Even when she is in the United States, her fate is determined by Don Fernando (the Colombian travel agent who offers help to her and Blanca) and the male drug dealers who hold Maria, Blanca, and Lucy captive. Don Fernando chose not to turn them into the police, but he did betray the women by telling Carla about Lucys death and its surrounding circumstances. The drug dealers killed Lucy for the heroin in her body; they had no regard for the life that possessed it. If Maria would have fallen ill, she would have suffered the same outcome. Even after her and Bianca escaped, the men had the ability to harm their families in Colombia. Once they returned to give the dealers their pellets, their own lives were once again endangered. They were fortunate to not be killed, much less receive their payment, but it was not without verbal and physical abuse. Each of the trials Maria faces is caused by a social norm that demands womens subordination to men in different areas of her life. Every aspect of her life was affected by this form of inequality: her sexual relations, her relationship with her boyfriend and family, her employment, her welfare, and her basic right to life. Maria Full of Grace is a paradigm for feature films that illuminate the delicate issues that instigate womens involvement in such reprehensible a exploit as drug trafficking.

Text types matrix Essays

Text types matrix Essays Text types matrix Essay Text types matrix Essay Text Type Context Purpose Audience Relationship Experts to learners Give out detailed information about a particular topic Interested people Information Nons Encyclopedia Dictionary References Leaflets/Brochures Those wishing to be informed Explanation Instruction Exposition Narrative Explains a process or procedure; how and why something works, or how a procedure is carried out designed to give information on how something should be done. Oral or written text in which someone takes a position on an issue and argues the case or presents a point of view Generally everyone Explains a process Gives a detailed step by step procedure on how to do something Expresses point of view; or persuades the listener or reader Written or spoken narration of an event that happened in the past. Three main kinds: factual, personal, and imaginative To relate in chronological order a sequence of past events Oral or written literary texts such as short stories, poems, novels. May also include songs. UT chiefly for entertainment purposes

Movie Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Movie Analysis - Essay Example Each of these characters have exhibited different ways of leading their fellow team members or the students as well as their colleagues in various ways. While Coach Boone, as the main coach has motivated the team and also provided the impetus to enjoy and win every game forgetting all forms of individual limitations and racial differences, Bill Yoast exhibited leadership quality by motivating players and taking adequate initiatives to assist Coach Boone to excel other teams in all divisions of team game. Gerry Bertier, being captain of the team has successfully guided his teammates to victory forefront, established instance that racial differences should not affect their performance as a team in the field by establishing a close friendship, both in and off the field with Julius Campbell and also made strong decisions to ensure high level of performance of the team by removing his white friend Ray, who attempted to impact the team’s performance by due to his personal disliking against African-Americans. Ronnie Bass, has also exhibited his leadership capacity by developing a cozy relationship with all team members, irrespective of all racial differences and identifying his capacity to lead, Coach Boone has also referred him as â€Å"the colonel† (Remember the Titians 2000). However, carefully pondering over each of the character’s contribution in the entire performance of the team it can be said that except Coach Boone, each of the other three were prescribed with specific duties to lead different departments of the team but Coach Boone was actually responsible for the entire situation and he has emerged as the leader in the film. Apart from the formal assignment to lead the team to win, he encountered the greatest challenges, namely to ingrate the team going beyond the scope of racial differences and to fight against all

ISLAM. Shi'i and Sunni Muslims Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

ISLAM. Shi'i and Sunni Muslims - Research Paper Example Islam is articulated by the divine book, Holy Quran, and is a monotheistic religion. Quran is the text, which is regarded as the perfect word of God by its Muslim followers and by the teachings of Holy Prophet (PBUH). Muhammad (PBUH) is the last Prophet of Allah and the seal on all the prophets and marks the finality of the prophethood. An adherent, or a follower, of Islam is known as the Muslim. The Muslims, without doubt, believe that there is only One and Incomparable God and the purpose of the existence of entire humanity is to serve and love the Almighty Power. They are also of the firm belief that Islam is a full universal adaptation of the primitive faith which was sent at various places and times through Moses, Abraham, and Jesus, who were the prophets of God before the arrival of Holy Prophet (PBUH) (Raana, 2010). Majority of the Muslims in Islam are the Sunni followers these days. According to the etymology of the word Sunni, it is a very broad terms which has been derived from the word Sunnah, which means a ‘normal practice’ or ‘habit’. Sunnis exist from the time of the Holy Prophet (PBUH), and are generally considered as the orthodox, or conventional, form of the religion. They are considered to be the followers of one of the four schools of thoughts: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali. These schools differ from each other in the methodologies of interpreting and practicing the Islamic laws (Marranci, 2007). The formation of Sunni sect was the outcome of the election of Abu Bakar as the first successor of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Ali had already got the candidature for the caliph but when the community chose the closest companion of Holy Prophet, the entire community got divided into two sects over this dispute. Those, who accepted and respected the legality and authority of Abu Bakar’s caliphate composed the majority of Muslims, were later called as â€Å"Sunni,† which means the â€Å"followers of [the Prophet’s] customs [sunna].† The